Home > Articles

This chapter is from the book

This chapter is from the book

Data Link Protocols

Objective: Compare and contrast key characteristics of LAN environments

In this section, you will learn about network protocols that can be utilized at the Data Link layer of the OSI model. These protocols include token ring, FDDI, and ethernet. Ethernet Data Link protocols are broken out into addressing and framing standards.

Token Ring

Token ring is a LAN protocol that utilizes a token-passing media access technology in a physical ring or physical star topology, which creates a logical ring topology. This protocol was first developed by IBM but then standardized by IEEE with the 802.5 specification. With token-passing, a three-byte token (or special bit pattern) is inserted in a frame and passed in a single direction from one node to another until it forms a complete loop. The node that has possession of the token is the only one that can send data at any given time on that LAN. Because only one node can send data at a time, collisions are avoided.

Rather than using a hub or switch, Token ring uses a multistation access unit (MAU) to send a token across the network. The MAU has Ring In (RI) and Ring Out (RO) ports. The RO of the first MAU is connected to the RI of the next MAU. This continues until the final MAU, which connects back to the first MAU RI port via its own RO port. As mentioned, a logical ring is created with this setup. Figure 3.1 shows how a token ring network operates with MAUs.

Figure 3.1

Figure 3.1 Token ring network.

A token ring LAN can run at either 4Mbps or 16Mbps. Each device must be configured for the same speed; otherwise the token-passing does not work at all. Overall, although this protocol provides a collision-free network, it is also more expensive to implement than ethernet. This is a major reason why ethernet is the most popular Data Link layer protocol, making token ring a rather distant second.

Let’s recap what you’ve learned about token ring:

  • Standardized by the IEEE 802.5 specification
  • A token-passing media access technology
  • Set up as a physical ring or physical star topology
  • Creates a logical ring topology
  • Speeds are assigned as either 4Mbps or 16Mbps
  • Utilizes an MSAU rather than a switch or hub
  • Provides collision-free data transfer
  • High overhead

FDDI

FDDI is a LAN protocol that utilizes a token-passing media access method on a dual ring topology. This protocol was created by the American National Standards Institute (ANSI) with the ANSI X3T9.5 specification. Data transmission occurs on fiber-optic cables at a rate of 100Mbps. Primarily, FDDI was developed to run data across the network backbone of a larger company. Dual ring is configured for FDDI to provide redundancy and fault-tolerance. Also, because it runs over fiber it is not susceptible to EMI like other media options. Figure 3.2 shows the dual ring topology of an FDDI network.

Figure 3.2

Figure 3.2 FDDI network.

FDDI uses a method called beaconing to signal when a failure is detected on the network. Beaconing enables a device to send a signal informing the other devices on that LAN that token passing has stopped. The beacon travels around the loop from one device to the next until it reaches the last device in that ring. To troubleshoot, the network administrator can find the beacon at that last device and then check the connection between that device and the next connected device on the FDDI network.

Like token ring, FDDI is costly to implement, which is a disadvantage when designing a small network.

Let’s recap what you’ve learned about FDDI:

  • Developed by ANSI with the ANSI X3T9.5 specification
  • A token-passing media access technology
  • Set up as a dual ring topology
  • Redundant, fault-tolerant network
  • Speed is 100Mbps
  • Runs over fiber-optic cable
  • Not susceptible to EMI
  • Provides collision-free data transfer
  • Fault-detection provided by beaconing
  • High overhead

Ethernet at the Data Link Layer

Objective: Describe network communications using layered models

Ethernet, ethernet, ethernet...

The most popular LAN by a mile, ethernet is a group of protocols and standards that work at either the Physical or Data Link layer of the OSI model. This section covers ethernet technology that is relevant to Layer 2. Ethernet is defined by the IEEE 802.3 specification. As technology advancements occur, IEEE has defined additional classifications of 802.3, which include Fast Ethernet, Gigabit Ethernet, 10-Gigabit Ethernet, and Long Reach Ethernet. The physical implementations of each Ethernet standard are covered in greater detail in a moment, but first I would like to review ethernet addressing and ethernet framing. Ethernet addressing can be achieved with unicast, multicast, or broadcast addresses at the Data Link layer.

Ethernet Addressing

The Data Link layer uses physical or hardware addressing to make sure data is delivered to the appropriate end device in a LAN. Physical addresses or what are commonly referred to as MAC addresses are used at Layer 2. Before you go any further, it’s a good idea to take a minute to review what you learned in Chapter 1.

The Data Link layer of the OSI model is the only one that has sublayers. Table 3.1 shows the breakout of Layer 2.

Table 3.1 Data Link Layer and Sublayers

OSI Model Layer

Sublayer

Data Link Layer

Media Access Control (MAC) IEEE 802.3

 

Logical Link Control (LLC) IEEE 802.2


A MAC address is hard-coded (burnt in) on the network interface controller (NIC) of the Physical Layer device attached to the network. Each MAC address must be unique and use the following format:

  • The address must consist of 48 bits (or 6 bytes).
  • It must be displayed by 12 hexadecimal digits (0–9, A–F).
  • The first 6 hexadecimal digits in the address are a vendor code or organizationally unique identifier (OUI) assigned to that NIC manufacturer.
  • The last 6 hexadecimal digits are assigned by the NIC manufacturer and must be different from any other number assigned by that manufacturer.

An example of a MAC address would be 00:00:07:A9:B2:EB. The OUI in this example is 00:00:07.

Ethernet LAN addresses can be broken down into two subcategories: individual and group addresses. An individual address is referred to as a unicast address. A unicast address identifies the MAC address of an individual LAN or NIC card. The source address on an ethernet frame will always be a unicast address. When a packet from the Network layer is framed for transport and is being forwarded to a single destination, a unicast address is also the destination address on an ethernet frame. Figure 3.3 represents an example of frame forwarding between a unicast source and a unicast destination device. Cisco devices typically use three groups of four hexadecimal digits separated by periods, such as 0000.0C12.3456. Cisco’s OUI is 0000.0C.

Figure 3.3

Figure 3.3 Unicast frame transmission.

In the example in Figure 3.3, Bill’s computer checks the destination address on the ethernet frame. If the destination address is the MAC on his computer, the frame is processed. If the destination address does not match up, the frame is dropped.

Group Ethernet LAN addresses classify more than one LAN or NIC card. Multicast and broadcast addresses are both classified as group addresses and can be described as follows:

  • Multicast addresses—Addresses where a frame can be sent to a group of devices in the same LAN. IEEE ethernet multicast addresses always begin with 0100.5E in hexadecimal format. The last three bytes can be any combination of hexadecimal digits. The IP routed protocol supports multicast addressing with three groups of four hexadecimal digits separated by periods (like Cisco devices), so it appears as 0100.5Exx.xxxx, where the x’s can represent any hex digit from 0–9 or A–F. Figure 3.4 shows a frame that is being forwarded from a unicast source to an IP multicast destination address.
  • Figure 3.4

    Figure 3.4 Multicast frame transmission.

    In this example, the switch sends a frame from its own unicast address to the multicast address of 0100.5E12.3456. Each device in that LAN segment checks the destination address to see whether it should be processed. Although Bill and Carol’s computer will review and process the frame, Dustin’s does not care about it and therefore drops the frame.

  • Broadcast addresses—Addresses where a frame is sent to all devices in the same LAN segment. Multicast and broadcast addresses are limited to a LAN or network segment. Broadcast addresses are always the same value, which is FFFF.FFFF.FFFF. Figure 3.5 shows a switch sending a frame to the destination address FFFF.FFFF.FFFF. Because this is the broadcast address value, all the devices in that LAN should process the frame.
Figure 3.5

Figure 3.5 Broadcast frame transmission.

Ethernet Framing

As you will recall from Chapter 1, data traverses the layers of the OSI model and is encapsulated from layer to layer.

Table 3.3 shows the process of using the OSI model to encapsulate data.

Table 3.3 OSI Model Layer and Related Control Information

OSI Layer

Control Information Name

Application

Presentation

Session

Data

Transport

Segment

Network

Packet

Data Link

Frame

Physical

Bit


The Data Link layer uses frames to transport data between layers. Framing is the process of interpreting data that is either received or sent out across the network. The 802.2 LLC Data Link sublayer is an extension of 802.3 and is responsible for framing, error-detection, and flow control. Figure 3.6 represents an 802.3 frame.

Figure 3.6

Figure 3.6 802.3 frame.

The three main parts of an 802.3 frame can be broken down and described as follows:

  • The Data Link header portion of the frame contains the destination MAC address (6 bytes), source MAC address (6 bytes), and length (2 bytes).
  • The Logical Link Control portion of the frame contains Destination Service Access Point (DSAP), Source Service Access Point (SSAP), and control information. All three are 1 byte long. The Service Access Point (SAP) identifies an upper-layer protocol such as IP (06) or IPX (E0).
  • The data and cyclical redundancy check (CRC) portion of the frame is also called the data-link trailer. The data field can be anywhere from 43 to 1497 bytes long. The frame check sequence (FCS) field is 4 bytes long. FCS or CRC provides error detection.

Error detection is used to determine whether bit errors happened during frame transmission. The sender and receiver of a frame use the same mathematical formula to analyze the information in the FCS field of the data-link trailer. If the calculations match up, there were no errors on that frame transmission.

I mentioned how the SAP in the 802.3 frame identifies an upper-layer protocol with 1 byte or 2 hexadecimal digits. The IP SAP is 06. Well, it turns out that 1 byte was insufficient for the number of protocols that need to be recognized by an 802.3 frame. To accommodate the influx of protocols, IEEE permitted for an additional header in the 802.3 frame called a Subnetwork Access Protocol (SNAP) header.

The SNAP header serves the same purpose as the DSAP field; however, it consists of 2 bytes. For example, 0800 is the hexadecimal format assigned to IP with SNAP. RFC 1700 identifies all the values that are associated with SAP and SNAP.

Pearson IT Certification Promotional Mailings & Special Offers

I would like to receive exclusive offers and hear about products from Pearson IT Certification and its family of brands. I can unsubscribe at any time.

Overview


Pearson Education, Inc., 221 River Street, Hoboken, New Jersey 07030, (Pearson) presents this site to provide information about Pearson IT Certification products and services that can be purchased through this site.

This privacy notice provides an overview of our commitment to privacy and describes how we collect, protect, use and share personal information collected through this site. Please note that other Pearson websites and online products and services have their own separate privacy policies.

Collection and Use of Information


To conduct business and deliver products and services, Pearson collects and uses personal information in several ways in connection with this site, including:

Questions and Inquiries

For inquiries and questions, we collect the inquiry or question, together with name, contact details (email address, phone number and mailing address) and any other additional information voluntarily submitted to us through a Contact Us form or an email. We use this information to address the inquiry and respond to the question.

Online Store

For orders and purchases placed through our online store on this site, we collect order details, name, institution name and address (if applicable), email address, phone number, shipping and billing addresses, credit/debit card information, shipping options and any instructions. We use this information to complete transactions, fulfill orders, communicate with individuals placing orders or visiting the online store, and for related purposes.

Surveys

Pearson may offer opportunities to provide feedback or participate in surveys, including surveys evaluating Pearson products, services or sites. Participation is voluntary. Pearson collects information requested in the survey questions and uses the information to evaluate, support, maintain and improve products, services or sites; develop new products and services; conduct educational research; and for other purposes specified in the survey.

Contests and Drawings

Occasionally, we may sponsor a contest or drawing. Participation is optional. Pearson collects name, contact information and other information specified on the entry form for the contest or drawing to conduct the contest or drawing. Pearson may collect additional personal information from the winners of a contest or drawing in order to award the prize and for tax reporting purposes, as required by law.

Newsletters

If you have elected to receive email newsletters or promotional mailings and special offers but want to unsubscribe, simply email information@informit.com.

Service Announcements

On rare occasions it is necessary to send out a strictly service related announcement. For instance, if our service is temporarily suspended for maintenance we might send users an email. Generally, users may not opt-out of these communications, though they can deactivate their account information. However, these communications are not promotional in nature.

Customer Service

We communicate with users on a regular basis to provide requested services and in regard to issues relating to their account we reply via email or phone in accordance with the users' wishes when a user submits their information through our Contact Us form.

Other Collection and Use of Information


Application and System Logs

Pearson automatically collects log data to help ensure the delivery, availability and security of this site. Log data may include technical information about how a user or visitor connected to this site, such as browser type, type of computer/device, operating system, internet service provider and IP address. We use this information for support purposes and to monitor the health of the site, identify problems, improve service, detect unauthorized access and fraudulent activity, prevent and respond to security incidents and appropriately scale computing resources.

Web Analytics

Pearson may use third party web trend analytical services, including Google Analytics, to collect visitor information, such as IP addresses, browser types, referring pages, pages visited and time spent on a particular site. While these analytical services collect and report information on an anonymous basis, they may use cookies to gather web trend information. The information gathered may enable Pearson (but not the third party web trend services) to link information with application and system log data. Pearson uses this information for system administration and to identify problems, improve service, detect unauthorized access and fraudulent activity, prevent and respond to security incidents, appropriately scale computing resources and otherwise support and deliver this site and its services.

Cookies and Related Technologies

This site uses cookies and similar technologies to personalize content, measure traffic patterns, control security, track use and access of information on this site, and provide interest-based messages and advertising. Users can manage and block the use of cookies through their browser. Disabling or blocking certain cookies may limit the functionality of this site.

Do Not Track

This site currently does not respond to Do Not Track signals.

Security


Pearson uses appropriate physical, administrative and technical security measures to protect personal information from unauthorized access, use and disclosure.

Children


This site is not directed to children under the age of 13.

Marketing


Pearson may send or direct marketing communications to users, provided that

  • Pearson will not use personal information collected or processed as a K-12 school service provider for the purpose of directed or targeted advertising.
  • Such marketing is consistent with applicable law and Pearson's legal obligations.
  • Pearson will not knowingly direct or send marketing communications to an individual who has expressed a preference not to receive marketing.
  • Where required by applicable law, express or implied consent to marketing exists and has not been withdrawn.

Pearson may provide personal information to a third party service provider on a restricted basis to provide marketing solely on behalf of Pearson or an affiliate or customer for whom Pearson is a service provider. Marketing preferences may be changed at any time.

Correcting/Updating Personal Information


If a user's personally identifiable information changes (such as your postal address or email address), we provide a way to correct or update that user's personal data provided to us. This can be done on the Account page. If a user no longer desires our service and desires to delete his or her account, please contact us at customer-service@informit.com and we will process the deletion of a user's account.

Choice/Opt-out


Users can always make an informed choice as to whether they should proceed with certain services offered by Adobe Press. If you choose to remove yourself from our mailing list(s) simply visit the following page and uncheck any communication you no longer want to receive: www.pearsonitcertification.com/u.aspx.

Sale of Personal Information


Pearson does not rent or sell personal information in exchange for any payment of money.

While Pearson does not sell personal information, as defined in Nevada law, Nevada residents may email a request for no sale of their personal information to NevadaDesignatedRequest@pearson.com.

Supplemental Privacy Statement for California Residents


California residents should read our Supplemental privacy statement for California residents in conjunction with this Privacy Notice. The Supplemental privacy statement for California residents explains Pearson's commitment to comply with California law and applies to personal information of California residents collected in connection with this site and the Services.

Sharing and Disclosure


Pearson may disclose personal information, as follows:

  • As required by law.
  • With the consent of the individual (or their parent, if the individual is a minor)
  • In response to a subpoena, court order or legal process, to the extent permitted or required by law
  • To protect the security and safety of individuals, data, assets and systems, consistent with applicable law
  • In connection the sale, joint venture or other transfer of some or all of its company or assets, subject to the provisions of this Privacy Notice
  • To investigate or address actual or suspected fraud or other illegal activities
  • To exercise its legal rights, including enforcement of the Terms of Use for this site or another contract
  • To affiliated Pearson companies and other companies and organizations who perform work for Pearson and are obligated to protect the privacy of personal information consistent with this Privacy Notice
  • To a school, organization, company or government agency, where Pearson collects or processes the personal information in a school setting or on behalf of such organization, company or government agency.

Links


This web site contains links to other sites. Please be aware that we are not responsible for the privacy practices of such other sites. We encourage our users to be aware when they leave our site and to read the privacy statements of each and every web site that collects Personal Information. This privacy statement applies solely to information collected by this web site.

Requests and Contact


Please contact us about this Privacy Notice or if you have any requests or questions relating to the privacy of your personal information.

Changes to this Privacy Notice


We may revise this Privacy Notice through an updated posting. We will identify the effective date of the revision in the posting. Often, updates are made to provide greater clarity or to comply with changes in regulatory requirements. If the updates involve material changes to the collection, protection, use or disclosure of Personal Information, Pearson will provide notice of the change through a conspicuous notice on this site or other appropriate way. Continued use of the site after the effective date of a posted revision evidences acceptance. Please contact us if you have questions or concerns about the Privacy Notice or any objection to any revisions.

Last Update: November 17, 2020